OK...here it is...
dont copy word for word and you can use it.
Classification/Comparison
Many people made an impact on American mobility and communications. A few groups and their contributions are as follows. One pair was George Pullman and George Westinghouse, who contributed to railroads. George Pullman (1831-97) was the inventor of the Pullman sleeping car. When a Pullman car was attached to the funeral train carrying Abraham Lincoln's body, demand for Pullman's product surged, and the Pullman Sleeping Car Company grew quickly. George Westinghouse perfected the first automatic, electric block signal, a device designed to avoid wrecks, save lives and help move rail traffic. Westinghouse's safety devices instilled passenger confidence and provided operational efficiency to rail owners. The materialization of a colossal Railroad industry resulted. This helped railroads become safer and more comfortable for passengers to ride. Another pair was Charles Duryea and George B. Seldon, who developed gas powered engines and cars. George Selden was a patent attorney. In 1870 hoof and mouth disease disables most of the horses used by the Rochester Street Railway. This encourages his interests in mechanics; he files for a patent on a compression gas engine in 1879 that is granted in 1895. He is unable to attract investors in his ideas, but he eventually does build a Selden Automobile. Henry Ford takes him to court saying his patent is for a basic device that would give him a monopoly over the entire automobile industry. Selden's engine patent is disallowed, and he is forced out of the automobile business. Charles Duryea built one of the first gasoline powered cars. Duryea moved to Peoria in 1892, as a partner in a bicycle company. It was during his time in Peoria that Duryea flourished as an inventor and as a pioneer in the automotive industry. The Peoria Duryea Motor Trap had a three-wheel configuration with one wheel in the front and two in the back. The two-person car had two speeds forward and one speed in reverse. The driver used one long handle to steer the car either left or right, shift gears, and throttle the engine. They were the beginnings of the automobile industry as we know it. Samuel Langley and Wiley Post worked on things related to flying and airplanes. Samuel Pierpont Langley was appointed Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in 1887 after a distinguished career as an astronomer and professor of physics at the Western University of Pennsylvania (later called the University of Pittsburgh) and director of the Allegheny Observatory at Pittsburgh-all without any formal education beyond high school. Langley was a self-taught scientist whose work displayed the highest standards of scientific rigor yet he was capable of making elementary mistakes and relied heavily on the work of his assistants. At the Allegheny Observatory, Langley built a whirling arm to test airfoils as George Cayley had done, but his machine was driven by a steam engine that whirled an arm seventy feet (21m) long and attained speeds the tip of seventy miles per hour. Once at the Smithsonian, he began building models powered by rubber bands. Realizing the limitation of this kind of power source, he adapted steam engines to the models and tested them carefully on many configurations, leaving behind careful records in his Memoir. Wiley Post was born in Texas on November 22, 1898. In 1931, he flew around the world in the Winnie Mae with his navigator, Harold Gatty. These men contributed to the world of flight. Cyrus Field and Alexander Graham Bell worked with the telephone, or wired communication. Cyrus Field began work at age fifteen, as an office boy for A. T. Stewart & Co., New York City's first department store. By age twenty, he was a partner in a paper manufacturing company, and before he was forty, he retired from business a wealthy man. In 1854 Field began the quest to lay a telegraphic cable across the Atlantic Ocean. After several failed attempts, in August 1858 Field arranged for Queen Victoria to send the first transatlantic message to President James Buchanan, and New York erupted in celebrations, lauding Field, telegraph inventor Samuel F. B. Morse, modern technology, and American ingenuity in general. But the cable broke after just three weeks, and Field did not complete his project until 1866. Alexander Graham Bell was born in 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. Throughout his life, Bell had been interested in the education of deaf people. This interest leads him to invent the microphone and, in 1876, his "electrical speech machine," which we now call a telephone. News of his invention quickly spread throughout the country, even throughout Europe. By 1878, Bell had set up the first telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut. By 1884, long distance connections were made between Boston, Massachusetts and New York City. Their contributions to communication changed communication as we know it. Guglielmo Marconi and Lee De Forest worked with the intricacies of electricity. Guglielmo Marconi did not, of course, "invent" radio. Nobody ever does invent anything from scratch as each "invention" is the consequence of many previous discoveries and researches (in this case especially those done by Faraday, Maxwell, Hertz, Lodge, Righi and Tesla). Besides he can only be regarded as having "invented" (in 1896) wireless telegraphy as radio, as we know it, only became possible with the invention of the amplifying valve (1906) and the possibility of modulating a signal over a carrier wave (which happened later). However he must be considered as the most important single person who contributed in a decisive way to take the "invention" out of the laboratories and put it in everybody's life. In this sense he is really the "inventor" of a new way of thinking and of transmitting intelligence. Radio has really changed this century and the way we all think and relate. Lee De Forest, (August 26, 1873 - June 30, 1961), was an American inventor with over 300 patents to his name. De Forest invented the audion, a vacuum tube that takes weak electrical signals and amplifies them. De Forest is one of the fathers of the "electronic age," as the audion helped to usher in the widespread use of electronics. These men worked towards the electrical world we live in today. All these pairs of people worked towards technology we take for granted today. Without them our world would be very different.
Analysis 1
Trusts are a combination of firms or corporations for the purpose of reducing competition and controlling prices throughout a business or an industry. They differ from monopolies in that monopolies are exclusive control by one group of the means of producing or selling a commodity or service. A trust is many different groups working together in the sale of a commodity while a monopoly is one group that controls the sale of a commodity. Trusts favor the business rather than the consumer because they still control a commodity and together can still charge unfair prices. The Sherman Antitrust Act, 1890,was the first measure passed by the U.S. Congress to prohibit trusts; it was named for Senator John Sherman. Prior to its enactment, various states had passed similar laws, but they were limited to intrastate businesses. Finally opposition to the concentration of economic power in large corporations and in combinations of business concerns led Congress to pass the Sherman Act. The act, based on the constitutional power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce, declared illegal every contract, combination (in the form of trust or otherwise), or conspiracy in restraint of interstate and foreign trade. A fine of $5,000 and imprisonment for one year were set as the maximum penalties for violating the act. The Clayton Antitrust Act, 1914, was passed by the U.S. Congress as an amendment to clarify and supplement the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. It was drafted by Henry De Lamar Clayton. The act prohibited exclusive sales contracts, local price cutting to freeze out competitors, rebates, interlocking directorates in corporations capitalized at $1 million or more in the same field of business, and intercorporate stock holdings. Labor unions and agricultural cooperatives were excluded from the forbidden combinations in the restraint of trade. The act restricted the use of the injunction against labor, and it legalized peaceful strikes, picketing, and boycotts. It declared that “the labor of a human being is not a commodity or article of commerce.” Organized labor was as heartened by the act as it had been dejected by the doctrine of the Danbury Hatters' Case, but subsequent judicial construction weakened the act's labor provisions. The Clayton Antitrust Act was the basis for a great many important and much-publicized suits against large corporations. Later amendments to the act strengthened its provisions against unfair price cutting (1936) and inter-corporate stock holdings (1950). The Federal Trade Commission (FTC), was established in 1914 as part of President Woodrow Wilson's effort to combat trusts, is an independent regulatory agency charged with ensuring free and fair competition among the nation's businesses (except for banks and common carriers, which are supervised by other agencies). Its five members are appointed to seven-year terms by the president, but a Supreme Court ruling in 1935 established that, once appointed, they cannot be dismissed by the president. The FTC was initially intended to carry out its regulatory functions primarily through economic planning, serving as a clearinghouse of information, publicizing examples of unfair competition, and advising the president and Congress on needed legislation. (These functions are similar to those of the earlier Bureau of Corporations, which it absorbed, but the FTC was given considerably more power than the bureau to do its work, including unprecedented access to corporate records and the right to issue cease-and-desist orders. In 1934 the Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) was created to protect investors in the wake of the 1929 stock market crash. The SEC continues to protect investors today, adding stability to investors' confidence and the markets in general. These Acts and Commissions were necessary to keep businesses from inflating prices so much that they hurt the economy.
Analysis 2
A labor Union is a group of workers joined together to keep their wages and conditions good instead of bad. By the 1820s, various unions involved in the effort to reduce the working day from 12 to 10 hours began to show interest in the idea of federation-of joining together in pursuit of common objectives for working people. Starting in the 1830s and accelerating rapidly during the Civil War, the factory system accounted for an ever-growing share of American production. It also produced great wealth for a few, grinding poverty for many. With workers recognizing the power of their employers, the number of local union organizations increased steadily during the mid-19th century. In a number of cities, unions in various trades joined together in citywide federations. The Nation Labor Union, (actually a federation- an organization of local unions) formed in 1866. The NLU eventually persuaded Congress to pass an eight hour day for Federal workers. Five years later, the Knights of Labor captured the public imagination. Formed in 1869 by Uriah Stephens and expanded rapidly under the leadership of Terrance Powdery, the Knights were an all-embracing organization committed to a cooperative society. Membership was open to all workers, whether they be skilled or unskilled, black or white, male or female. The Knights achieved a membership of nearly 750,000 during the next few years, but the skilled and unskilled workers who had joined the Knights in hope of improvement in their hours and wages found themselves fragmented by the rift between skilled and unskilled workers. Skilled workers tired of labor activity on the part of unskilled workers who were easily replaced. The Knights, an effective labor force, declined after the Haymarket Square riots. In the riot members of the Knights of Labor where accused of throwing a bomb which killed police officers. The Knights, already fragmented, were faced with enormous negative publicity, and eventually disbanded. The American Federation of Labor was founded by Samuel Gompers in 1886. Gompers, born in 1850, came as a boy with his parents to America from the Jewish slums of London; he entered the cigar-making trade and received much of his education as a "reader" (a worker who read books, newspaper stories, poetry and magazine articles to fellow employees to help break the monotony of their work in the shop) and became a leader of his local union and of the national Cigar Makers Union. In November 1935, John L. Lewis announced the creation of the CIO, the Committee for Industrial Organization, composed of about a dozen leaders of AFL unions, to carry on the effort for industrial unionism. Industrial Unions are unions that organize an entire industry regardless of skill. In short they were unions of unskilled workers. Lewis, born in Iowa in 1880 of Welsh immigrant parents, went to work in the coal mines and became president of the Mine Workers in 1920. An orator of remarkable virtuosity, Lewis voiced increasingly bitter attacks on his colleagues on the AFL Executive Council; his words helped speed the break. In 1936, the various CIO unions were expelled from the Federation. In 1938 the CIO held its first constitutional convention and became the Congress of Industrial Organizations. the CIO began a remarkably successful series of organizing campaigns, and over the next few years, brought industrial unionism to large sectors of basic American industry. At the same time the unions remaining in the AFL registered even more substantial gains in membership. During World War 11, the AFL and CIO, while preserving areas of disagreement, began to find more substantial bases for working together on problems affecting all workers. In time many of the old antagonisms had died out and the old issues had been resolved. The stage was set for merger of the two labor groups. They were reunited into the AFL-CIO at a convention in New York opening on Dec. 5, 1955. The AFL-CIO merger and its accompanying agreements brought about the virtual elimination of jurisdictional disputes between unions that had plagued the labor movement and alienated public sympathy in earlier years. The unions placed a new priority on organizing workers in areas, industries and plants where no effective system of labor representation yet existed. In many cases, it meant crossing the barriers of old thinking and tired methods to reach the employees of companies which for years had resisted unions. (http://www.socialstudieshelp.com/Eco_Unionization.htm)
A labor Union operates by using the following tools. Boycott: To abstain from or act together in abstaining from using, buying, or dealing with as an expression of protest or disfavor or as a means of coercion. Closed shop: a company that hires only union members. Collective bargaining: Negotiation between organized workers and their employer or employers to determine wages, hours, rules, and working conditions. Open shop: A business or factory in which workers are employed without regard to union membership. Strike: To engage in a strike against an employer. “Yellow dog” contract: workers had to sign in order to get a job, bound them never to join a union.
Four Labor Unions that impact directly on my life are the ILWU, the SEIU, the WEA, and the WSMTA. The ILWU is the International Longshoreman and Warehouse Union, which is responsible for the Longshoremen who keep the Port of Seattle working. The SEIU is the Service Employees International Union, which is responsible for most nurses, janitors, dentists, doctors, and other such jobs that affect your life on a daily basis. The WEA is the Washington Education Association, which is responsible for most teachers in Seattle. The WSMTA is the Washington State Music Teachers Association, which is responsible foe the music teachers in our schools.
Application
National Amendments or Prohibitions to Citizenship:
Amendment 14: Civil Rights Citizenship Granted to freed African Americans (ratified in 1868). Amendment 15: Black Suffrage Voting rights extended to African Americans (ratified in 1870). Asian Exclusion Acts: barring immigrants from citizenship & ownership of property. Chinese Exclusion Acts / Immigration Exclusion Act (1882) prohibited citizenship for Chinese immigrants. Subsequent acts reinforcing the exclusion of Chinese immigrant were passed in 1884, 1886 and 1888. Immigration Act of 1917: Exclusion of Asian Indians (1917) Amendment 19: Woman Suffrage extended voting rights to U.S. women citizens (ratified in 1920). Ozawa v. United States (1922) In the Ozawa v. United States case (1922), the Supreme Court ruled against a Japan-born applicant to naturalization (who had lived most of his life in the United States). Supreme Court Decision regarding South Asian Immigrations (1923) Immigrant Act of 1924: Exclusion of Japanese Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934): Exclusion of Filipinos U.S. colonization of the Philippines (1898-1946) The Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934 cut Filipino immigration to a quota of fifty persons per year, and all Filipinos in the United States were reclassified as 'aliens.' Alien Land Laws (1913, 1920, and 1923) prohibited Asian immigrants from owning land and other forms of property through the legal construction of nonwhites as aliens ineligible to citizenship. "Asia Barred Zone" (1917) The 1917 immigration act denied entry to people from a "barred zone" that included South Asia through Southeast Asia and islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, but excluded American possessions of the Philippines and Guam. Magnuson Act (1943): lifted the barriers to citizenship for most immigrants of Asian origin. Asian Exclusion Repeal Acts (1946, for Filipino and East Indian) Mc Carran-Walter Act (1952): abolished the 1917 Asia Barred Zone; allowed for immigration into the United States based on ethnic quotas. Immigrant Act (1965): eliminated immigration quotas, establishing new criteria for immigrants. The 1965 immigration act removed 'natural origins' as the basis of American immigration legislation and was framed as an amendment to the 1952 McCarran-Walter Act. The 1965 act abolished 'national origin' quotas and specified seven preferences for Eastern Hemisphere quota immigrants: (1) unmarried adult sons and daughters of citizens; (2) spouses and unmarried sons and daughters of permanent residents; (3) professionals, scientists, and artists of exceptional ability; (4) married adult sons and daughters of U.S. citizens; (5) siblings of adult citizens; (6) workers, skilled and unskilled, in occupations for which labor was in short supply in the United States; and (7) refugees from Communist-dominated countries or those uprooted by natural catastrophe. Three acts have facilitated the immigration and resettlement of Southeast Asian refugees: Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act (1975) Refugee Act (1980) Amerasian Homecoming Act (1987) Immigrant Reform and Control Act (1986) Immigration Act (1990) California's Proposition 187: California's Proposition 187 passed in 1994, attempts to deny schooling and medical care to illegal immigrants; although the referendum does not specify immigrants from Mexico and Latin America, its execution would certainly be aimed at these groups.
Three quota that I find interesting are the Tydings-McDuffie Act, the "Asia Barred Zone," and California's Proposition187. These are interesting because they are all aimed at certain minority groups. These groups are the Filipinos, South Asia through Southeast Asia and islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and Mexico and Latin America.
Predictive
Pan-Americanism: movement toward commercial, social, economic, military, and political cooperation among the nations of North, Central, and South America.
19th Century
The struggle for independence after 1810 among the Latin American nations evoked a sense of unity, especially in South America where, under Simón Bolívar in the north and José de San Martín in the south, there were cooperative efforts. Francisco Morazán briefly headed a Central American Federation . The United States was looked upon as a model, and recognition of the new republics was a part of U.S. foreign policy. Henry Clay and Thomas Jefferson set forth the principles of Pan-Americanism in the early 1800s, and soon afterward the United States declared through the Monroe Doctrine a new policy with regard to interference by European nations in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. Initially welcomed, despite establishing U.S. hegemony, the doctrine later was seen by many Latin American nations as a mask for U.S. imperialistic ambitions.
In the 19th cent., Latin American military nationalism came to the fore. Venezuela and Ecuador withdrew (1830) from Greater Colombia; the Central American Federation collapsed (1838); Argentina and Brazil fought continually over Uruguay, and then all three combined in the War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70) to defeat Paraguay; and in the War of the Pacific (1879-83), Chile defeated Peru and Bolivia. However, during this same period Pan-Americanism existed in the form of a series of Inter-American Conferences-Panama (1826), Lima (1847), Santiago (1856), and Lima (1864). The main object of those meetings was to provide for a common defense. The first of the modern Pan-American Conferences was held (1889-90) in Washington, D.C., with all nations represented except the Dominican Republic. Treaties for arbitration of disputes and adjustment of tariffs were adopted, and the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics, which became the Pan-American Union , was established. Subsequent meetings were held in various Latin American cities.
20th Century
In the early 20th cent., U.S. manipulation to secure the Panama Canal and its intervention in the affairs of other Latin American states, combined to create Latin American resentment toward the United States. There was progress, however, in the codification of international law, acceptance of peace machinery, and creation of scientific and social agencies. Troubles nonetheless continued to flare. A major war was fought (1932-35) between Bolivia and Paraguay over the Chaco (see Gran Chaco ). Strained relations between the United States and Panama were temporarily resolved by a treaty signed in 1936. Although it still restricted Panama's sovereignty, it ended the American right of intervention.
With the administration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt a policy of determined cordiality toward Latin America-the “Good Neighbor” policy-bore fruit. As World War II approached, the nations of the Western Hemisphere drew closer together. Conferences held in 1936 and 1938 provided for consultation in case of outside threat. Accordingly, after the outbreak of World War II the Inter-American Neutrality Conference was held (1939) in Panama. A conference of foreign ministers at Havana produced (1940) the Act of Havana, declaring against changes of sovereignty in the Western Hemisphere. Most of the Latin American nations (with the notable exception of Argentina) supported or actually joined the Allies after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
A significant step was taken at the Inter-American Conference on the Problems of War and Peace in Mexico City in 1945. The Act of Chapultepec, adopted there by 20 republics, called for joint action in repelling aggression against an American state, including that by another American state. Acceptance by Argentina established machinery to enforce peace in the Western Hemisphere. This was formalized by the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (the Rio Treaty ). In other fields, too, cooperation advanced, as in commercial and financial matters (e.g., the Inter-American Bank). As a consequence of the growing awareness of interdependence the Bogotá Conference of 1948 produced the Organization of American States (OAS) to promote hemispheric unity. In the late 1950s the United States took steps toward an international price agreement on agricultural products and minerals, a measure long advocated by Latin American republics plagued by one-product economies. The Inter-American Development Bank began operations early in 1960.
Since the 1960s one of the most persistent issues facing the inter-American system has been the Communist government in Cuba and the strong opposition to it in the United States. Fidel Castro's support for Communist guerrilla forces in other Latin American countries led, in 1962, to Cuba's expulsion from the OAS. The vote, however, was not unanimous; Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, and Mexico abstained. Nonetheless, in the same year Latin American nations backed the United States in its blockade of Cuba following the construction of missile bases there. By the 1990s, however, almost all Latin American countries had resumed trade and diplomatic relations with Cuba. In 1989, in yet another clash with Panama, the United States invaded to remove its de facto leader, Manuel Noriega, and to establish an elected government, despite the OAS's calls for U.S. withdrawal.
With the introduction of the Alliance for Progress in 1961, the United States undertook a long-term plan of economic assistance. In partial recognition of the weakness of this program, the Declaration of the Presidents of America was signed (1967) in Punta del Este, Uruguay, expressing commitment to Latin American economic integration, i.e., the creation of a common market (see Central American Common Market ; Latin American Integration Association ). Although economic cooperation has not proceeded as quickly as originally planned, there has been progress toward the lowering of trade barriers in both North and South America, especially with the creation of the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) in 1991 and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1992. These developments kept alive hopes for ultimate inter-American economic integration, and in Apr., 2001, 34 Western Hemisphere nations committed themselves to the creation of a Free Trade Area of the Americas.
Classification/Comparison
Many people made an impact on American mobility and communications. A few groups and their contributions are as follows. One pair was George Pullman and George Westinghouse, who contributed to railroads. George Pullman (1831-97) was the inventor of the Pullman sleeping car. When a Pullman car was attached to the funeral train carrying Abraham Lincoln's body, demand for Pullman's product surged, and the Pullman Sleeping Car Company grew quickly. George Westinghouse perfected the first automatic, electric block signal, a device designed to avoid wrecks, save lives and help move rail traffic. Westinghouse's safety devices instilled passenger confidence and provided operational efficiency to rail owners. The materialization of a colossal Railroad industry resulted. This helped railroads become safer and more comfortable for passengers to ride. Another pair was Charles Duryea and George B. Seldon, who developed gas powered engines and cars. George Selden was a patent attorney. In 1870 hoof and mouth disease disables most of the horses used by the Rochester Street Railway. This encourages his interests in mechanics; he files for a patent on a compression gas engine in 1879 that is granted in 1895. He is unable to attract investors in his ideas, but he eventually does build a Selden Automobile. Henry Ford takes him to court saying his patent is for a basic device that would give him a monopoly over the entire automobile industry. Selden's engine patent is disallowed, and he is forced out of the automobile business. Charles Duryea built one of the first gasoline powered cars. Duryea moved to Peoria in 1892, as a partner in a bicycle company. It was during his time in Peoria that Duryea flourished as an inventor and as a pioneer in the automotive industry. The Peoria Duryea Motor Trap had a three-wheel configuration with one wheel in the front and two in the back. The two-person car had two speeds forward and one speed in reverse. The driver used one long handle to steer the car either left or right, shift gears, and throttle the engine. They were the beginnings of the automobile industry as we know it. Samuel Langley and Wiley Post worked on things related to flying and airplanes. Samuel Pierpont Langley was appointed Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in 1887 after a distinguished career as an astronomer and professor of physics at the Western University of Pennsylvania (later called the University of Pittsburgh) and director of the Allegheny Observatory at Pittsburgh-all without any formal education beyond high school. Langley was a self-taught scientist whose work displayed the highest standards of scientific rigor yet he was capable of making elementary mistakes and relied heavily on the work of his assistants. At the Allegheny Observatory, Langley built a whirling arm to test airfoils as George Cayley had done, but his machine was driven by a steam engine that whirled an arm seventy feet (21m) long and attained speeds the tip of seventy miles per hour. Once at the Smithsonian, he began building models powered by rubber bands. Realizing the limitation of this kind of power source, he adapted steam engines to the models and tested them carefully on many configurations, leaving behind careful records in his Memoir. Wiley Post was born in Texas on November 22, 1898. In 1931, he flew around the world in the Winnie Mae with his navigator, Harold Gatty. These men contributed to the world of flight. Cyrus Field and Alexander Graham Bell worked with the telephone, or wired communication. Cyrus Field began work at age fifteen, as an office boy for A. T. Stewart & Co., New York City's first department store. By age twenty, he was a partner in a paper manufacturing company, and before he was forty, he retired from business a wealthy man. In 1854 Field began the quest to lay a telegraphic cable across the Atlantic Ocean. After several failed attempts, in August 1858 Field arranged for Queen Victoria to send the first transatlantic message to President James Buchanan, and New York erupted in celebrations, lauding Field, telegraph inventor Samuel F. B. Morse, modern technology, and American ingenuity in general. But the cable broke after just three weeks, and Field did not complete his project until 1866. Alexander Graham Bell was born in 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. Throughout his life, Bell had been interested in the education of deaf people. This interest leads him to invent the microphone and, in 1876, his "electrical speech machine," which we now call a telephone. News of his invention quickly spread throughout the country, even throughout Europe. By 1878, Bell had set up the first telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut. By 1884, long distance connections were made between Boston, Massachusetts and New York City. Their contributions to communication changed communication as we know it. Guglielmo Marconi and Lee De Forest worked with the intricacies of electricity. Guglielmo Marconi did not, of course, "invent" radio. Nobody ever does invent anything from scratch as each "invention" is the consequence of many previous discoveries and researches (in this case especially those done by Faraday, Maxwell, Hertz, Lodge, Righi and Tesla). Besides he can only be regarded as having "invented" (in 1896) wireless telegraphy as radio, as we know it, only became possible with the invention of the amplifying valve (1906) and the possibility of modulating a signal over a carrier wave (which happened later). However he must be considered as the most important single person who contributed in a decisive way to take the "invention" out of the laboratories and put it in everybody's life. In this sense he is really the "inventor" of a new way of thinking and of transmitting intelligence. Radio has really changed this century and the way we all think and relate. Lee De Forest, (August 26, 1873 - June 30, 1961), was an American inventor with over 300 patents to his name. De Forest invented the audion, a vacuum tube that takes weak electrical signals and amplifies them. De Forest is one of the fathers of the "electronic age," as the audion helped to usher in the widespread use of electronics. These men worked towards the electrical world we live in today. All these pairs of people worked towards technology we take for granted today. Without them our world would be very different.
Analysis 1
Trusts are a combination of firms or corporations for the purpose of reducing competition and controlling prices throughout a business or an industry. They differ from monopolies in that monopolies are exclusive control by one group of the means of producing or selling a commodity or service. A trust is many different groups working together in the sale of a commodity while a monopoly is one group that controls the sale of a commodity. Trusts favor the business rather than the consumer because they still control a commodity and together can still charge unfair prices. The Sherman Antitrust Act, 1890,was the first measure passed by the U.S. Congress to prohibit trusts; it was named for Senator John Sherman. Prior to its enactment, various states had passed similar laws, but they were limited to intrastate businesses. Finally opposition to the concentration of economic power in large corporations and in combinations of business concerns led Congress to pass the Sherman Act. The act, based on the constitutional power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce, declared illegal every contract, combination (in the form of trust or otherwise), or conspiracy in restraint of interstate and foreign trade. A fine of $5,000 and imprisonment for one year were set as the maximum penalties for violating the act. The Clayton Antitrust Act, 1914, was passed by the U.S. Congress as an amendment to clarify and supplement the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. It was drafted by Henry De Lamar Clayton. The act prohibited exclusive sales contracts, local price cutting to freeze out competitors, rebates, interlocking directorates in corporations capitalized at $1 million or more in the same field of business, and intercorporate stock holdings. Labor unions and agricultural cooperatives were excluded from the forbidden combinations in the restraint of trade. The act restricted the use of the injunction against labor, and it legalized peaceful strikes, picketing, and boycotts. It declared that “the labor of a human being is not a commodity or article of commerce.” Organized labor was as heartened by the act as it had been dejected by the doctrine of the Danbury Hatters' Case, but subsequent judicial construction weakened the act's labor provisions. The Clayton Antitrust Act was the basis for a great many important and much-publicized suits against large corporations. Later amendments to the act strengthened its provisions against unfair price cutting (1936) and inter-corporate stock holdings (1950). The Federal Trade Commission (FTC), was established in 1914 as part of President Woodrow Wilson's effort to combat trusts, is an independent regulatory agency charged with ensuring free and fair competition among the nation's businesses (except for banks and common carriers, which are supervised by other agencies). Its five members are appointed to seven-year terms by the president, but a Supreme Court ruling in 1935 established that, once appointed, they cannot be dismissed by the president. The FTC was initially intended to carry out its regulatory functions primarily through economic planning, serving as a clearinghouse of information, publicizing examples of unfair competition, and advising the president and Congress on needed legislation. (These functions are similar to those of the earlier Bureau of Corporations, which it absorbed, but the FTC was given considerably more power than the bureau to do its work, including unprecedented access to corporate records and the right to issue cease-and-desist orders. In 1934 the Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) was created to protect investors in the wake of the 1929 stock market crash. The SEC continues to protect investors today, adding stability to investors' confidence and the markets in general. These Acts and Commissions were necessary to keep businesses from inflating prices so much that they hurt the economy.
Analysis 2
A labor Union is a group of workers joined together to keep their wages and conditions good instead of bad. By the 1820s, various unions involved in the effort to reduce the working day from 12 to 10 hours began to show interest in the idea of federation-of joining together in pursuit of common objectives for working people. Starting in the 1830s and accelerating rapidly during the Civil War, the factory system accounted for an ever-growing share of American production. It also produced great wealth for a few, grinding poverty for many. With workers recognizing the power of their employers, the number of local union organizations increased steadily during the mid-19th century. In a number of cities, unions in various trades joined together in citywide federations. The Nation Labor Union, (actually a federation- an organization of local unions) formed in 1866. The NLU eventually persuaded Congress to pass an eight hour day for Federal workers. Five years later, the Knights of Labor captured the public imagination. Formed in 1869 by Uriah Stephens and expanded rapidly under the leadership of Terrance Powdery, the Knights were an all-embracing organization committed to a cooperative society. Membership was open to all workers, whether they be skilled or unskilled, black or white, male or female. The Knights achieved a membership of nearly 750,000 during the next few years, but the skilled and unskilled workers who had joined the Knights in hope of improvement in their hours and wages found themselves fragmented by the rift between skilled and unskilled workers. Skilled workers tired of labor activity on the part of unskilled workers who were easily replaced. The Knights, an effective labor force, declined after the Haymarket Square riots. In the riot members of the Knights of Labor where accused of throwing a bomb which killed police officers. The Knights, already fragmented, were faced with enormous negative publicity, and eventually disbanded. The American Federation of Labor was founded by Samuel Gompers in 1886. Gompers, born in 1850, came as a boy with his parents to America from the Jewish slums of London; he entered the cigar-making trade and received much of his education as a "reader" (a worker who read books, newspaper stories, poetry and magazine articles to fellow employees to help break the monotony of their work in the shop) and became a leader of his local union and of the national Cigar Makers Union. In November 1935, John L. Lewis announced the creation of the CIO, the Committee for Industrial Organization, composed of about a dozen leaders of AFL unions, to carry on the effort for industrial unionism. Industrial Unions are unions that organize an entire industry regardless of skill. In short they were unions of unskilled workers. Lewis, born in Iowa in 1880 of Welsh immigrant parents, went to work in the coal mines and became president of the Mine Workers in 1920. An orator of remarkable virtuosity, Lewis voiced increasingly bitter attacks on his colleagues on the AFL Executive Council; his words helped speed the break. In 1936, the various CIO unions were expelled from the Federation. In 1938 the CIO held its first constitutional convention and became the Congress of Industrial Organizations. the CIO began a remarkably successful series of organizing campaigns, and over the next few years, brought industrial unionism to large sectors of basic American industry. At the same time the unions remaining in the AFL registered even more substantial gains in membership. During World War 11, the AFL and CIO, while preserving areas of disagreement, began to find more substantial bases for working together on problems affecting all workers. In time many of the old antagonisms had died out and the old issues had been resolved. The stage was set for merger of the two labor groups. They were reunited into the AFL-CIO at a convention in New York opening on Dec. 5, 1955. The AFL-CIO merger and its accompanying agreements brought about the virtual elimination of jurisdictional disputes between unions that had plagued the labor movement and alienated public sympathy in earlier years. The unions placed a new priority on organizing workers in areas, industries and plants where no effective system of labor representation yet existed. In many cases, it meant crossing the barriers of old thinking and tired methods to reach the employees of companies which for years had resisted unions. (http://www.socialstudieshelp.com/Eco_Unionization.htm)
A labor Union operates by using the following tools. Boycott: To abstain from or act together in abstaining from using, buying, or dealing with as an expression of protest or disfavor or as a means of coercion. Closed shop: a company that hires only union members. Collective bargaining: Negotiation between organized workers and their employer or employers to determine wages, hours, rules, and working conditions. Open shop: A business or factory in which workers are employed without regard to union membership. Strike: To engage in a strike against an employer. “Yellow dog” contract: workers had to sign in order to get a job, bound them never to join a union.
Four Labor Unions that impact directly on my life are the ILWU, the SEIU, the WEA, and the WSMTA. The ILWU is the International Longshoreman and Warehouse Union, which is responsible for the Longshoremen who keep the Port of Seattle working. The SEIU is the Service Employees International Union, which is responsible for most nurses, janitors, dentists, doctors, and other such jobs that affect your life on a daily basis. The WEA is the Washington Education Association, which is responsible for most teachers in Seattle. The WSMTA is the Washington State Music Teachers Association, which is responsible foe the music teachers in our schools.
Application
National Amendments or Prohibitions to Citizenship:
Amendment 14: Civil Rights Citizenship Granted to freed African Americans (ratified in 1868). Amendment 15: Black Suffrage Voting rights extended to African Americans (ratified in 1870). Asian Exclusion Acts: barring immigrants from citizenship & ownership of property. Chinese Exclusion Acts / Immigration Exclusion Act (1882) prohibited citizenship for Chinese immigrants. Subsequent acts reinforcing the exclusion of Chinese immigrant were passed in 1884, 1886 and 1888. Immigration Act of 1917: Exclusion of Asian Indians (1917) Amendment 19: Woman Suffrage extended voting rights to U.S. women citizens (ratified in 1920). Ozawa v. United States (1922) In the Ozawa v. United States case (1922), the Supreme Court ruled against a Japan-born applicant to naturalization (who had lived most of his life in the United States). Supreme Court Decision regarding South Asian Immigrations (1923) Immigrant Act of 1924: Exclusion of Japanese Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934): Exclusion of Filipinos U.S. colonization of the Philippines (1898-1946) The Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934 cut Filipino immigration to a quota of fifty persons per year, and all Filipinos in the United States were reclassified as 'aliens.' Alien Land Laws (1913, 1920, and 1923) prohibited Asian immigrants from owning land and other forms of property through the legal construction of nonwhites as aliens ineligible to citizenship. "Asia Barred Zone" (1917) The 1917 immigration act denied entry to people from a "barred zone" that included South Asia through Southeast Asia and islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, but excluded American possessions of the Philippines and Guam. Magnuson Act (1943): lifted the barriers to citizenship for most immigrants of Asian origin. Asian Exclusion Repeal Acts (1946, for Filipino and East Indian) Mc Carran-Walter Act (1952): abolished the 1917 Asia Barred Zone; allowed for immigration into the United States based on ethnic quotas. Immigrant Act (1965): eliminated immigration quotas, establishing new criteria for immigrants. The 1965 immigration act removed 'natural origins' as the basis of American immigration legislation and was framed as an amendment to the 1952 McCarran-Walter Act. The 1965 act abolished 'national origin' quotas and specified seven preferences for Eastern Hemisphere quota immigrants: (1) unmarried adult sons and daughters of citizens; (2) spouses and unmarried sons and daughters of permanent residents; (3) professionals, scientists, and artists of exceptional ability; (4) married adult sons and daughters of U.S. citizens; (5) siblings of adult citizens; (6) workers, skilled and unskilled, in occupations for which labor was in short supply in the United States; and (7) refugees from Communist-dominated countries or those uprooted by natural catastrophe. Three acts have facilitated the immigration and resettlement of Southeast Asian refugees: Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act (1975) Refugee Act (1980) Amerasian Homecoming Act (1987) Immigrant Reform and Control Act (1986) Immigration Act (1990) California's Proposition 187: California's Proposition 187 passed in 1994, attempts to deny schooling and medical care to illegal immigrants; although the referendum does not specify immigrants from Mexico and Latin America, its execution would certainly be aimed at these groups.
Three quota that I find interesting are the Tydings-McDuffie Act, the "Asia Barred Zone," and California's Proposition187. These are interesting because they are all aimed at certain minority groups. These groups are the Filipinos, South Asia through Southeast Asia and islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and Mexico and Latin America.
Predictive
Pan-Americanism: movement toward commercial, social, economic, military, and political cooperation among the nations of North, Central, and South America.
19th Century
The struggle for independence after 1810 among the Latin American nations evoked a sense of unity, especially in South America where, under Simón Bolívar in the north and José de San Martín in the south, there were cooperative efforts. Francisco Morazán briefly headed a Central American Federation . The United States was looked upon as a model, and recognition of the new republics was a part of U.S. foreign policy. Henry Clay and Thomas Jefferson set forth the principles of Pan-Americanism in the early 1800s, and soon afterward the United States declared through the Monroe Doctrine a new policy with regard to interference by European nations in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. Initially welcomed, despite establishing U.S. hegemony, the doctrine later was seen by many Latin American nations as a mask for U.S. imperialistic ambitions.
In the 19th cent., Latin American military nationalism came to the fore. Venezuela and Ecuador withdrew (1830) from Greater Colombia; the Central American Federation collapsed (1838); Argentina and Brazil fought continually over Uruguay, and then all three combined in the War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70) to defeat Paraguay; and in the War of the Pacific (1879-83), Chile defeated Peru and Bolivia. However, during this same period Pan-Americanism existed in the form of a series of Inter-American Conferences-Panama (1826), Lima (1847), Santiago (1856), and Lima (1864). The main object of those meetings was to provide for a common defense. The first of the modern Pan-American Conferences was held (1889-90) in Washington, D.C., with all nations represented except the Dominican Republic. Treaties for arbitration of disputes and adjustment of tariffs were adopted, and the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics, which became the Pan-American Union , was established. Subsequent meetings were held in various Latin American cities.
20th Century
In the early 20th cent., U.S. manipulation to secure the Panama Canal and its intervention in the affairs of other Latin American states, combined to create Latin American resentment toward the United States. There was progress, however, in the codification of international law, acceptance of peace machinery, and creation of scientific and social agencies. Troubles nonetheless continued to flare. A major war was fought (1932-35) between Bolivia and Paraguay over the Chaco (see Gran Chaco ). Strained relations between the United States and Panama were temporarily resolved by a treaty signed in 1936. Although it still restricted Panama's sovereignty, it ended the American right of intervention.
With the administration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt a policy of determined cordiality toward Latin America-the “Good Neighbor” policy-bore fruit. As World War II approached, the nations of the Western Hemisphere drew closer together. Conferences held in 1936 and 1938 provided for consultation in case of outside threat. Accordingly, after the outbreak of World War II the Inter-American Neutrality Conference was held (1939) in Panama. A conference of foreign ministers at Havana produced (1940) the Act of Havana, declaring against changes of sovereignty in the Western Hemisphere. Most of the Latin American nations (with the notable exception of Argentina) supported or actually joined the Allies after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
A significant step was taken at the Inter-American Conference on the Problems of War and Peace in Mexico City in 1945. The Act of Chapultepec, adopted there by 20 republics, called for joint action in repelling aggression against an American state, including that by another American state. Acceptance by Argentina established machinery to enforce peace in the Western Hemisphere. This was formalized by the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (the Rio Treaty ). In other fields, too, cooperation advanced, as in commercial and financial matters (e.g., the Inter-American Bank). As a consequence of the growing awareness of interdependence the Bogotá Conference of 1948 produced the Organization of American States (OAS) to promote hemispheric unity. In the late 1950s the United States took steps toward an international price agreement on agricultural products and minerals, a measure long advocated by Latin American republics plagued by one-product economies. The Inter-American Development Bank began operations early in 1960.
Since the 1960s one of the most persistent issues facing the inter-American system has been the Communist government in Cuba and the strong opposition to it in the United States. Fidel Castro's support for Communist guerrilla forces in other Latin American countries led, in 1962, to Cuba's expulsion from the OAS. The vote, however, was not unanimous; Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, and Mexico abstained. Nonetheless, in the same year Latin American nations backed the United States in its blockade of Cuba following the construction of missile bases there. By the 1990s, however, almost all Latin American countries had resumed trade and diplomatic relations with Cuba. In 1989, in yet another clash with Panama, the United States invaded to remove its de facto leader, Manuel Noriega, and to establish an elected government, despite the OAS's calls for U.S. withdrawal.
With the introduction of the Alliance for Progress in 1961, the United States undertook a long-term plan of economic assistance. In partial recognition of the weakness of this program, the Declaration of the Presidents of America was signed (1967) in Punta del Este, Uruguay, expressing commitment to Latin American economic integration, i.e., the creation of a common market (see Central American Common Market ; Latin American Integration Association ). Although economic cooperation has not proceeded as quickly as originally planned, there has been progress toward the lowering of trade barriers in both North and South America, especially with the creation of the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) in 1991 and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1992. These developments kept alive hopes for ultimate inter-American economic integration, and in Apr., 2001, 34 Western Hemisphere nations committed themselves to the creation of a Free Trade Area of the Americas.