for those of you who were puking, etc...
Okeedokee, to avoid the wrath of Elle, I Bring you SMALL font school notes for those who were not at class....behind a cut even!
RESEARCH!!!
February 18, 2009
Sampling
Check out a small portion of a thing and then generalize to the entire thing
Generalizations may be correct depending on the quality of the sample
Terminology
Population
Set of people things events or groups that is of interest to the researcher
Eg residents of Toronto, Lutherans, riots in the 60s
Sampling frame
List of all elements in the population
Eg if the population that you wanted to study is "cities in Canada" your sampling frame would be all of the cities in Canada
Exceptions=>residents of Toronto, this would be hard to compile all of the residents of Toronto so phone books or city directories could be used
Sample
A subset of the population
Researchers generalize from samples to populations (hoping that the sample is representative)
Sample units
Elements of the population that are chosen to be included in the sample
Parameter
Number that describes some attribute of the elements of the population
Eg average income in a population
Statistic
Number that describes some attribute of the elements in a sample
An overview of sampling
A representative sample is crucial in making generalizations about a larger population
2 main sampling strategies=>probability and no probability
Probability sampling technique
Simple random sampling
Best sample does not give a person/category a better chance of being included
May use
A random number table
Random number generators on the internet
Stratified random sampling
Random sample that is drawn from different categories (strata) of a population
Use if there is a minority group with relevant views in the population
Multistage sampling
Use when a list of every element in the population/universe is being studied is unavailable
Cluster sampling
Eg individuals who make up the population of 4th graders are clustered into one school
It takes advantage of this clustering by randomly selecting the sample
Area sampling
Divide a city into neighbourhoods
Divide a province into geographic areas
nonprobability
When a complete and accurate sampling frame is beyond reach
Need to explain sampling technique
Systematic sampling with a random start
Choose one element at random as a starting place then select for example every 10th number on the list
Convenience sampling
Selecting sampling units based on availability rather than being representative
Eg survey in outside of malls, asking a few questions
Quota sampling
Population is stratified based on variable (age, race, etc)
Once groups are defined samples from each stratum are taken on convenience
Eg 20 men and 20 women
Snowball sampling
Identify one member of a population and ask them to identify another who them identifies another
Used for subcultures or where anonymity is sought
Judgement sampling
Use your best judgement to select a sample
Used when information is needed from an atypical member of the population
Selecting a sampling strategy
Be prepared to explain and defend choices for sampling
How large a sample is necessary
Major factors
More divers the larger the population to capture the diversity
Nature of the study and number of variables (^variables. ^sample)
PSYCHOLOGY!!!
February 18, 2009
Conformity
Type of social influence in which there is a change in our behaviour
Good
Social norms: wearing clothing…"personal safety"
Sense of belonging
Avoid chaos eg running a red light
Sense of stability
Bad
No change
Lack of self-identity
Following bad ideas…NAZISM
Why do we conform?
Informational social influence-when our need to be correct is strong, we rely on others to guide us
Normative social influence-alter our behaviour because of our need to be liked and accepted by others
Informational social influence
this type can lead to private acceptance
Adhering to group norm in private because of genuine belief in their correctness
Versus public acceptance-changing behaviour without change in belief
When will people conform to this type of influence?
1. When situation is ambiguous
2. When situation is crisis
3. When other people are experts
Sherif experiment in the 30's
Normative social influence
This type often results in public compliance without private acceptance
We conform to social norms-implicit or explicit rules has for acceptable behaviours, values and beliefs of its members
Solomon Asch's experiments ('50s)
When will people conform to this type of influence?
Social impact theory states that it depends on
1. Strength-degree of attractiveness felt towards particular group
2.immediacy-physical proximity
3. Number-how many are in group
Conformity will increase directly with amount of strength and immediacy but increases in numbers will show diminishing returns
Influence of culture-some encourage it more
How to resist pressures to conform
Become aware that you are doing it
Find ally who thinks like you do
RESEARCH!!!
February 18, 2009
Sampling
Check out a small portion of a thing and then generalize to the entire thing
Generalizations may be correct depending on the quality of the sample
Terminology
Population
Set of people things events or groups that is of interest to the researcher
Eg residents of Toronto, Lutherans, riots in the 60s
Sampling frame
List of all elements in the population
Eg if the population that you wanted to study is "cities in Canada" your sampling frame would be all of the cities in Canada
Exceptions=>residents of Toronto, this would be hard to compile all of the residents of Toronto so phone books or city directories could be used
Sample
A subset of the population
Researchers generalize from samples to populations (hoping that the sample is representative)
Sample units
Elements of the population that are chosen to be included in the sample
Parameter
Number that describes some attribute of the elements of the population
Eg average income in a population
Statistic
Number that describes some attribute of the elements in a sample
An overview of sampling
A representative sample is crucial in making generalizations about a larger population
2 main sampling strategies=>probability and no probability
Probability sampling technique
Simple random sampling
Best sample does not give a person/category a better chance of being included
May use
A random number table
Random number generators on the internet
Stratified random sampling
Random sample that is drawn from different categories (strata) of a population
Use if there is a minority group with relevant views in the population
Multistage sampling
Use when a list of every element in the population/universe is being studied is unavailable
Cluster sampling
Eg individuals who make up the population of 4th graders are clustered into one school
It takes advantage of this clustering by randomly selecting the sample
Area sampling
Divide a city into neighbourhoods
Divide a province into geographic areas
nonprobability
When a complete and accurate sampling frame is beyond reach
Need to explain sampling technique
Systematic sampling with a random start
Choose one element at random as a starting place then select for example every 10th number on the list
Convenience sampling
Selecting sampling units based on availability rather than being representative
Eg survey in outside of malls, asking a few questions
Quota sampling
Population is stratified based on variable (age, race, etc)
Once groups are defined samples from each stratum are taken on convenience
Eg 20 men and 20 women
Snowball sampling
Identify one member of a population and ask them to identify another who them identifies another
Used for subcultures or where anonymity is sought
Judgement sampling
Use your best judgement to select a sample
Used when information is needed from an atypical member of the population
Selecting a sampling strategy
Be prepared to explain and defend choices for sampling
How large a sample is necessary
Major factors
More divers the larger the population to capture the diversity
Nature of the study and number of variables (^variables. ^sample)
PSYCHOLOGY!!!
February 18, 2009
Conformity
Type of social influence in which there is a change in our behaviour
Good
Social norms: wearing clothing…"personal safety"
Sense of belonging
Avoid chaos eg running a red light
Sense of stability
Bad
No change
Lack of self-identity
Following bad ideas…NAZISM
Why do we conform?
Informational social influence-when our need to be correct is strong, we rely on others to guide us
Normative social influence-alter our behaviour because of our need to be liked and accepted by others
Informational social influence
this type can lead to private acceptance
Adhering to group norm in private because of genuine belief in their correctness
Versus public acceptance-changing behaviour without change in belief
When will people conform to this type of influence?
1. When situation is ambiguous
2. When situation is crisis
3. When other people are experts
Sherif experiment in the 30's
Normative social influence
This type often results in public compliance without private acceptance
We conform to social norms-implicit or explicit rules has for acceptable behaviours, values and beliefs of its members
Solomon Asch's experiments ('50s)
When will people conform to this type of influence?
Social impact theory states that it depends on
1. Strength-degree of attractiveness felt towards particular group
2.immediacy-physical proximity
3. Number-how many are in group
Conformity will increase directly with amount of strength and immediacy but increases in numbers will show diminishing returns
Influence of culture-some encourage it more
How to resist pressures to conform
Become aware that you are doing it
Find ally who thinks like you do