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A name so oft repeated as Pythagoras’ would seem to imply a thorough body of knowledge of life and works. However, in the echo chamber that is culture, a name sometimes loses all but the most vague connotations. Such is the case for this man and his followers. His personage and cult has been embellished and reinterpreted for thousands of years. Even our most primary sources require a critical eye. The way Pythagoras has been portrayed can be analyzed in reference to other important Greek cultural impulses. As one of the first thinkers of the rationalist movement, we may explore the extent of his influence on later thinkers. He is also the object of a cult following, another important aspect of Greek life. In exploring such issues, we will consider the real impact of Pythagoras, versus his idealized influence and position as philosophical mascot.
The Myth
The following is an overview of the philosophies and accomplishments attributed to Pythagoras-whether true or not. In the archaic age, he emerges as the most notable pioneer of rationalism. Though the divine is certainly still present in his teachings, it now has a knowable pattern; thus, rationalism. (Making of the West, 42) Many of his innovations do not seem remarkable to us today, but the concepts delineate a momentous shift in thought. Rather than episodal anecdotes which provide an explanation for one thing or another, Pythagoras recognizes an all-inclusive being, the One, which the soul is a part of. This concept is extended to all life forms-not just humans, but also plants and animals. (Burkert science and lore 136) Even beyond this, it is applied to ‘all that is’-the heavens, the earth, people, gods. This construct is not present in every culture’s thought process. (Burkert logic of cosmogony 88) It is this recognition of the unity of existence, based on knowable patterns, which Pythagoras is to be respected for, and which may have laid the conceptual foundations for subsequent thinkers. In particular, his new approach centered on numbers. The idea was that the whole of everything-the universe, astronomy, music, etc.-was organized in to a divine harmony based on numbers. The most divine number was One, from whence all things sprang. Some later historians also cited Pythagoras as constructing mathematical concepts, such as geometry, from this premise. He also taught a doctrine of reincarnation, compatable with the above in that souls are one with gods. (strohmeir & westbrook). From this idea followed the taboo on eating meat or sacrificing animals. (bremmer-from myth to reason, 72) In true revolutionary form, Pythagoras scandalized some with the idea that animals’ souls were of the same caliber as human souls. (Berkert- lore and science, 122) The dominant paradigm was that humans held a special place in the world, and later philosophers often tried to explain away or ignore this part of his teachings, as well as others they did not agree with.
His role as a savior/divine figure
As Pythagoras’ identity was reinterpreted continually since his death, he took on the role of a divine savior figure. The impulse to compare Pythagoras to Jesus in this capacity is not unique to those of us living in the 21st century. He himself taught that he was not only a philosopher, like his contemporaries, but also as somehow above other humans, imbued with divinity. (Bremmer 74) A character who claimed to be the reincarnation of Pythagoras was Apollonius of Tyna, and he exploited the cult of Pythagoras. Julia Domna, empress of Septimus Severus, offered him as a state approved version of the salvation that was attractive to proto-christians. (Ferguson, p. 10) The roman empire, threatened by Jesus’ popularity, also saw this parallel. Two other related aspects of his immortal status were the teachings of reincarnation and his divine knowledge. As the story goes, in a previous life he was the son of Apollo. When given the chance for one wish-anything but immortality-he asked that he might remember everything that happened to him in various reincarnations. Thus, he could describe not only his life as many different people, but also the divine mysteries he witnessed in his astral travel. (strohmeir and westbrook) Receiving special divine knowledge is another common aspect of salvation; consider Buddha’s enlightenment under the lotus tree, Muhammed’s revalation in the cave, and Jesus’ direct connection to the heavens. This unique position of wisdom, combined with the idea of the immortal soul which can be punished, gives him the capacity of salvation. This may have been made even more attractive by the decline of the aristocracy. This was a society which otherwise would have been active in preserving the memory of a personage; with no guarantee of this type of immortality, turning to Pythagoras may have been an act of self-preservation. (Bremmer 74)
Following Pythagoras
As opposed to Jesus’ message of universal salvation, however, was the exclusivity of the Pythagoreans. They were very dogmatic about keeping the teachings to themselves; the success of which is attested to by the lack of firm sources on the matter. In training for this secrecy, it is likely that initiates had to undertake a vow of silence for several years. This was one of the characteristics most firmly associated with the Pythagoreans. (Reidwig) Those who broke silence, or indeed any other stricture placed on them by the master, were said to have been ejected from the society, ostracized by members, and had a grave erected for the part of their soul that died with expulsion. (Strohmeir and Westbrook) The strength of the command was symbolic in several ways. Because of the cryptic nature of the teachings, for one not properly trained to receive the knowledge they could actually be either misleading or harmful. (Strohmeir & Westbrook) Also, such firm divergances from normal behavior reaffirmed constantly the separation between themselves and the rest of society. (Burkert- structure and history, 48) associated with this difference were the trials and labors undergone by those who had achieved such status, and the knowledge they were privy to as a result.
Only the most preeminent disciples received the full prescriptions and intellectual training from Pythagoras himself. One of the tacit criteria for this privelege must have been wealth, since his reccomendations could not have been realized by those who had to work daily. (Bremmer 74) Iambichilus gives us an account of these people, though much, if not all, is probably embellished upon, at best. He describes a monastic life, their days occupied by meditation, care for the body, and various learning excercises, including both lectures from Pythagoras and discussion amongst themselves. (strohmeir and westbrook, bremmer 74) Other aspects included the aforementioned vegetarianism, taboo on beans, and possessions held in common. To be on the conservative side of truth, Philip firmly rejects the idea of an early Pythagorean brotherhood. (Philip 24) Instead, the association may have been more in the tradition of a political party, which took the name of Pythagoras.
In comparison with other mystery cults.
Though members considered themselves quite different from the rest of greek society, they had much in common with other mystery cults. (reidwig) Though many writers have been most excited about the stark deviance in some aspects of their lives, it can also be useful to understand the cultural precedents for others. Whether or not the stories are true, tales about an idealized Pythagorean community can still serve a purpose in reflecting the ideas about cult and ritual at the time. For example, Iambichlus’ description of a psudo-monastic lifestyle illustrates the Greek fascination with the christian’s new practices in worship. (Bremmer 74) A comparison is often drawn between Pythagoreans and Orphics, another group which placed itself apart from society. Their scripture was said to be handed down from Orpheus himself. Herodotus attests that ritual is where the relationship lies between the two. (Burkert- lore and science, 128) They certainly have in common a doctrine of reincarnation. (Bremmer, 81) Beyond this, however, many comparisons are superficial, and the differences are significant. For example, they both have restrictions on eating beans, as well as being vegetarians. On the other hand, however, orphism is primarily a literary philosophy; this in contrast with the fact that Pythagorean doctrine was never written down. (Guthrie, p 10) In addition, Orphism still placed a heavy emphasis on mythology, whereas Pythagoreanism did not hold the old religion in high regard. (Bremmer 79) It is possible that rather than being similar in any qualitative way, they filled a similar niche in society. Bremmer suggests that Orphism took the place of Pythagoreanism after his death. Because the extensive body of knowledge associated with the latter was never written down, Orphism would have the advantage of being able to be transmitted without the direct involvement of a supreme leader. Despite the differences in doctrine between Pythagoras and other philosophically oriented persons, the society at large may not have drawn distinctions between them. For an illustration of this perspective, look to Aristophane’s Clouds. In this parody, those who dedicate themselves to a life of thought are given characteristics such as secrecy, ascetic lifestyles, and sophistic dialogue. This hodge-podge of tendancies, inspired by several different intellectual circles, is fused in to one caricature. (Reidwig, 95) Perhaps the distinctions we desire between schools of thought were not as sharp for those uninvolved in the discussion.
Intellectual things
In biographies written about historical figures of the time-mostly put on paper years after the individual’s life-it was the hallmark of an intellectual to have visited the orient one or more times. Because of this perception, and his success in impressing his teachers in Ionia, Pythagoras had immediate respect wherever he travelled. Among Pythagoras’ alleged influences are Egyptian, Persian, and even Celtic schools of thought. (reidwig) In a society that placed more emphasis on wisdom coming from life experience and practice in thought rather than book learning, this worldliness would be seen as something like higher education. (Mikita Brottman, author of The Solitary Vice: Against Reading on The Sound of Young America Posted Thu, 10/30/2008 - 10:11 by Jesse Thorn) Though he had been preceded in Greece by other Ionian thinkers such as Thales and Anaxamander, he pushed the Ionian Enlightenment farther, by going to the Italic Peninsula. (The seekers: the story of man's continuing quest to understand his world By Daniel Joseph Boorstin) In his new home of Magna Graeca, he found an audience in members of the upper class, as well as other philosophers. (bremmer 74) Because Pythagoras seems to be the first to promote the idea of the rebirth of the soul in the west, it is reasonable to trace it from other philosophers back to him. Though the evidence is slim as to the extent of the influnce Pythagoras had on his peers, based on the above procedure we can discern Pythagorean ideas in both Xenophanes and Heraclitus. (Riedweg, 114) In the fourth century BC, Plato founded his Academy in Greece. This institute gathered the most prominent philosophers and mathematicians, among other vocational thinkers. The Pythagoreans of this time, as well as Plato himself, certainly still had Pythagoras in mind. Paradoxically, it is easier to see their influence on Pythagoras and the perception of him than it is to see his influence on them. Plato’s fellow Academy members, including Aristotle, wrote about him working within the framework of Pythagorean thought. (Philip 77) He gives similar respect to numbers and mathematics as a unifying principle of the universe. He also works with the assumption of the unlimited; a unity which all comes from. (Riedweg 117) Many mathemeticians in this circle claim inspiration from Pythagoras. However, it is generally accepted that Pythagoras did not develop concrete mathematical ideas, such as geometry. (Philip 77) The motivation for such claims is further discussed later. The progress he did make was in the concept of numbers; their relationships, combinations, ratios, etc. Their forcus was finding ‘evidence’ of the relationships between numbers in the physical world, to corroborate the theory of number and harmony. (Philip 80)
Sieves his ideas have passed through
Sources on Pythagoras are influenced by many motives beside portraying the thinker as accurately as possible. Buxton, in his introduction to From Myth to Reason?, discusses one impulse, common to Pythagoras’ contemporaries. Competing for prestige in the philosophical realm, some found it a successful strategy to ridicule or otherwise depreciate opposing viewpoints in order to show the validity of their own. (Buxton 6) The later Neopythagoreans, who dominated mathematics at the time, attributed Pythagoras with mathematical ideas. (Philip, 24-25) Another distorting impulse is that of regarding tradition as authority. Thus, in order to legitimize innovation, a Greek scholar would construct a progression of thought which has as it’s logical extension his own thesis. This led to the repackaging of older ideas as needed. (Philip 44) A particular example of this is later thinkers, supposedly representing Pythagorean thought, disregarding one of the most basic tenents of Pythagorean doctrine; that of reincarnation. Much of the force behind this eradication comes from the dissenting Platonists, and their attempts to reconcile Pythagoras to their own ideas. (Burkert lore and science, 123-124) Philip finds Aristotle the most trustworthy source; as the most ‘acute, impartial, and important witness,’ and also as the source for many later writers. (Philip, 5-7)
Pythagoras has continued to be reinterpreted beyond the writers of antiquity. Within this century, the New Occult movement appropriated these ideas. This movement, which is surely underappreciated in its affects on today’s intellectual placement, was a perfect receptacle for Pythagoras. The pinnacle of philosophical legitimacy for them was the Hellenistic world of Greece, with a particular emphasis on those who had eastern influences. Herodotus fabricates an Egyptian philosophy of reincarnation; the New Occultists have an identical impulse to ascribe their own ideas to ancient sources. (Burkert Lore and science 126) This directly informed their production of The Golden Verses and Other Pythagorean fragments-a composition which cites Pythagoras as the author-for the purpose of daily guidance. A cursory back ground check of Annie Besant, introductress of the text, reveals her deep connection with this curious movement. Which brings us to modern scholars. Though the prevailing mindset is to discount any information that does not adhere to our ideas of empirical truth, it is exactly this worship of logic that can bias our ideas of Pythagoras. If we think of science as a replacement for religion, as Marx discussed, we might compare Pythagoras to an orgins myth. In the tradition of a just-so story, there is danger of projecting our desires for a movement toward rational thought on to Pythagoras. i.e. over estimating his influence on other thinkers. It is important to understand his ideas in context primarily, and only afterwards may one explore the premise of his role as the genitor of a movement towards rational thought, leading to today. (Buxton 6)
Conclusion
The difficulty in knowing Pythagoras is perhaps at a unique place today. While the New Occultists, content to mix science and myth, accepted wholesale anything that had passed through the distorting process of time, the impulses of todays scholars are quite different. The mystic and the folk are deemed unscientific, and have no place in understanding fact. However, Pythagoras cannot be understood without his cloak of mystery and his shroud of mysticism. Just as it is not productive to say that myths are untrue, it is also unproductive to discount primary sources in his life as biased, and therefore worthless. When writing a purely scientific and academic account of Pythagoras, you run the risk of losing the magic that makes him attractive in the first place.