i need your input please tell me how to improve this.
my group is writing a 5 page paper about predator-prey:behavior and ecology of sharks and rays. we are not allowed over 5 pages but i had to condense a ton of info into one page so tell me what you think.
Sharks use several methods of prey capture tactics, ambushing, stalking, luring. Within these tactics lays prey herding and the manipulation of prey, prey debilitation, predatory behaviors and prey capture. Ambushing is the practice at which a predator lies in wait for prey, when prey is near; the predator makes a rapid attack. Stalking relies on stealth, the predator attempts to decrease the distance between itself and prey without being detected. When predator is close enough to attack, it is a rapid attack. Luring is where a predator may use their body to trick prey into thinking it’s got an easy meal, and becomes a meal itself.
Sharks that are ambush predators are generally flat, with long upper lobe of caudal fin and are suction feeders, i.e. nurse shark, Ginglymostoma cirratum. Camouflage is key for their survival; these sharks are relatively small compared to the pelagic sharks built for speed. Sharks and rays may ambush their prey, although rays generally just swim up to sessile prey. Diamond rays, Gymnura natalensis has been seen lying in wait near squid eggs. The ray would lunge towards squid, which came too close. After the attack the ray would return to the sandy area adjacent to the squid eggs (Smale et al., 2001). Pacific angel sharks, Squatina califonica will lie in wait near rocky reefs, these reefs serve as a refugia for a wide variety of fishes, increasing encounter rates for the shark (Fouts and Nelson. 1999).
Stalking sharks are fast swimming sharks capable of quick speed bursts. A shark stalking will position itself directly below prey, before it launches into a vertical attack. This will minimize strike distance and duration, while maximizing the shark’s likelihood of success (Martin et al., 2005).
Some sharks have adapted for luring prey to them, some sharks have luminous organs, such as the cookiecutter shark, Isistius brasiliensis. The oceanic whitetip, Carcharhinus longimanus, may lure prey with white spots on fins. The megamouth, Megachasma pelagios, has luminous tissue that surrounds the mouth attracting shrimp in high concentrations, the jaws are then protruded suctioning in the shrimp (Clark and Nelson, 1997).
Some elasmobranches are able to debilitate their prey so that they may reduce risk of injury and expend less energy. Hammerheads may bite the pectoral fins off rays, while some rays, the pacific electric ray, Torpedo californica will orient themselves so that prey is within their pectoral disc, and then emit an electric current, effectively stunning their prey (Lowe et al., 1994).
Sharks may cease feeding when prey densities become to low. Basking sharks, Cetorhinus maximus, which are the only obligate ram filter-feeding shark, will cease feeding when plankton densities become less than 0.45gm-³ (Sims 1999). White sharks, Carcharodon carcharias will stop attacking seals when success rate drops to ±40% (Martin et al.,2005). Sharks are opportunistic and will scavenge carcasses and may also attack non-prey items.
Sharks, which have a subterminal mouth, may raise snout to align prey with mouth. Once prey is then captured via a series of capture bites, manipulation/processing bites, and hydraulic transport into the esophagus (Motta and Wilga, 2001). Sharks may round schooling prey into tight balls and dive through them with mouth open, while others will breach the surface to attack unsuspecting prey, both sharks and rays may use suction to suck prey from substrate and there are species of sharks and rays that are filter feeders, example whale shark, Rhincodon typus and manta ray, Manta birostris.
Bibliography
Clark, E., Nelson, D.R. Young whale shark, Rhincodon typus, feeding on a copepod bloom near La Paz, Mexico Environmental Biology of Fishes 1997 50:63-73
Fouts, W.R. and Nelson, D.R. Prey capture by the pacific angelshark, Squatina californica: visually mediatted strikes and ambush site characteristics Copeia 1999 2:304-312
Lowe, C.G., Bray, R.N., and Nelson D.R. Feeding and associated electrical behavior of the pacific electric ray Torpedo californica in the field Marine Biology 1994 120:161-169
Martin, R.A., Hammerschlay, N., Collier, R.S., Fallows, C. Predatory behavior of white sharks Carcharodon carcharias at Seal Island, South Africa Marine Biology 2005 85:1121-1135
Motta, P.J. and Wilga, C.D. Advances in the study of feeding behaviors, mechanisms, and mechanics of sharks Environmental Biology of Fish 2001 60:131-156
Sims, D.W. Threshold foraging behavior of basking sharks on zooplankton: life on an energetic knife-edge? The Royal Society 1999 266:1437-1443
Smale, M.J., Saurer, W.H.H., and Roberts, M.J. Behavioral interactions of predators and spawning chokka squid of South Africa; towards quantification Marine Biology 139 6:1095-1105
Sharks use several methods of prey capture tactics, ambushing, stalking, luring. Within these tactics lays prey herding and the manipulation of prey, prey debilitation, predatory behaviors and prey capture. Ambushing is the practice at which a predator lies in wait for prey, when prey is near; the predator makes a rapid attack. Stalking relies on stealth, the predator attempts to decrease the distance between itself and prey without being detected. When predator is close enough to attack, it is a rapid attack. Luring is where a predator may use their body to trick prey into thinking it’s got an easy meal, and becomes a meal itself.
Sharks that are ambush predators are generally flat, with long upper lobe of caudal fin and are suction feeders, i.e. nurse shark, Ginglymostoma cirratum. Camouflage is key for their survival; these sharks are relatively small compared to the pelagic sharks built for speed. Sharks and rays may ambush their prey, although rays generally just swim up to sessile prey. Diamond rays, Gymnura natalensis has been seen lying in wait near squid eggs. The ray would lunge towards squid, which came too close. After the attack the ray would return to the sandy area adjacent to the squid eggs (Smale et al., 2001). Pacific angel sharks, Squatina califonica will lie in wait near rocky reefs, these reefs serve as a refugia for a wide variety of fishes, increasing encounter rates for the shark (Fouts and Nelson. 1999).
Stalking sharks are fast swimming sharks capable of quick speed bursts. A shark stalking will position itself directly below prey, before it launches into a vertical attack. This will minimize strike distance and duration, while maximizing the shark’s likelihood of success (Martin et al., 2005).
Some sharks have adapted for luring prey to them, some sharks have luminous organs, such as the cookiecutter shark, Isistius brasiliensis. The oceanic whitetip, Carcharhinus longimanus, may lure prey with white spots on fins. The megamouth, Megachasma pelagios, has luminous tissue that surrounds the mouth attracting shrimp in high concentrations, the jaws are then protruded suctioning in the shrimp (Clark and Nelson, 1997).
Some elasmobranches are able to debilitate their prey so that they may reduce risk of injury and expend less energy. Hammerheads may bite the pectoral fins off rays, while some rays, the pacific electric ray, Torpedo californica will orient themselves so that prey is within their pectoral disc, and then emit an electric current, effectively stunning their prey (Lowe et al., 1994).
Sharks may cease feeding when prey densities become to low. Basking sharks, Cetorhinus maximus, which are the only obligate ram filter-feeding shark, will cease feeding when plankton densities become less than 0.45gm-³ (Sims 1999). White sharks, Carcharodon carcharias will stop attacking seals when success rate drops to ±40% (Martin et al.,2005). Sharks are opportunistic and will scavenge carcasses and may also attack non-prey items.
Sharks, which have a subterminal mouth, may raise snout to align prey with mouth. Once prey is then captured via a series of capture bites, manipulation/processing bites, and hydraulic transport into the esophagus (Motta and Wilga, 2001). Sharks may round schooling prey into tight balls and dive through them with mouth open, while others will breach the surface to attack unsuspecting prey, both sharks and rays may use suction to suck prey from substrate and there are species of sharks and rays that are filter feeders, example whale shark, Rhincodon typus and manta ray, Manta birostris.
Bibliography
Clark, E., Nelson, D.R. Young whale shark, Rhincodon typus, feeding on a copepod bloom near La Paz, Mexico Environmental Biology of Fishes 1997 50:63-73
Fouts, W.R. and Nelson, D.R. Prey capture by the pacific angelshark, Squatina californica: visually mediatted strikes and ambush site characteristics Copeia 1999 2:304-312
Lowe, C.G., Bray, R.N., and Nelson D.R. Feeding and associated electrical behavior of the pacific electric ray Torpedo californica in the field Marine Biology 1994 120:161-169
Martin, R.A., Hammerschlay, N., Collier, R.S., Fallows, C. Predatory behavior of white sharks Carcharodon carcharias at Seal Island, South Africa Marine Biology 2005 85:1121-1135
Motta, P.J. and Wilga, C.D. Advances in the study of feeding behaviors, mechanisms, and mechanics of sharks Environmental Biology of Fish 2001 60:131-156
Sims, D.W. Threshold foraging behavior of basking sharks on zooplankton: life on an energetic knife-edge? The Royal Society 1999 266:1437-1443
Smale, M.J., Saurer, W.H.H., and Roberts, M.J. Behavioral interactions of predators and spawning chokka squid of South Africa; towards quantification Marine Biology 139 6:1095-1105